The Syrian Refugee Crisis Is An Outcome Of The Civil War

POLICY MEMORANDUM #1 To: Dr. Ban Ki-moon, United Nations Secretary General From: Dr. Amena Al-Diri, Strategic Advisor to OCHA-Syria Subject: Proposal to solve the Syrian civil war in the UN Security Council Date: 09/22/2015 _____________________________________________________________________________ Executive Summary The Syrian refugee crisis is an outcome of the civil war that has suffered this country over four years. Therefore, a solution to this conflict is urgently needed to stop the humanitarian tragedy and the flood of refugees. In Syria’s civil war, the critical mass participation of local and international actors, with different priorities, perceptions and interests, has dramatically reduced the likelihood of a negotiated or military solution. In this context, the United Nation Security Council is the most suitable and pragmatic space to lead and seek for a multilateral solution, instead of continuing with these failed unilateral or bilateral military interventions that have taken place in Syria. The UN Security Council should promote a converging and problem-solving approach between Russia, the United States and other regional powers involved in Syria’s crisis, like Saudi Arabia and Iran; and then try to negotiate with the Government, rebels and paramilitary groups, as wel l as define an international strategy to defeat Jihadists. Background and Problem Statement â€Å"A political solution to the crisis in Syria needs to be found. Until then, displacementShow MoreRelatedThe Hysteria Of The Salem Witch Trials1366 Words   |  6 Pagesrefused to take responsibility for their actions. The same thing is happening in modern day America due to a 4 year long civil war, in Syria, and a mounting war on terrorism, in the United States. Syrians are fleeing their country because of the impending civil war, of 4 years, between those loyal to President Bashar al-Assad and those who oppose him, the rebels. Accepting refugees from war torn countries has always been something the United States has done, even if it caused some controversy. However,Read MoreRefugee Crisis Is The Country Of Hopes And Dreams1232 Words   |  5 Pagesour country, we should accept Syrian refugees into the United States because the Refugee Crisis is a serious problem, accepting refugees is an act of Congress, and helping refugees is the humane thing to do. The first reason the United States should accept refugees is because the Syrian Refugee Crisis is a major problem. Syria has been in a civil war since March 15, 2011 with the government of their president and his allies against multiple opposing sides. The war is intense and caused a lot ofRead MoreEssay about Teachers in Syria1399 Words   |  6 Pageshalf year long Civil War in Syria has lead to more than one hundred thousand deaths in the region. The continued conflict in Syria has caused the UN to stop updating the death toll in Syria because they have found that information from Syria and the surrounding region is no longer verifiable (UNCHR, 2014). The UN’s Refugee Agency (UNCHR) (2014) has noted that 2.4 million Syrians have registered as refugees, but they estimate that there are, in fact many more unregistered Syrian refugees escapingRead MoreThe Syrian Refugee Crisis Essay1304 Words   |  6 Pagesevent. In the case of the Syrian refugee crisis, my interest stems from my fascination with the glaring hypocrisy of American exceptionalism that bubbles to surface when the international crockpot of geopolitics turns sour with abhorrently violent dictators and the inevitable civil wars that remove them from power. The Syrian government, under the power of Bashar Hafez al-Assad, has resorted to violence against Syrian citizens who are critical of the government. The â€Å"crisis† we hear about developedRead MoreDetermining a Strategy for the Refugee Crisis in Syria1964 Words   |  8 PagesSummary Balancing humanitarian concerns with U.S national interests is essential in determining a strategy for the refugee crisis in Syria. According to the UN Refugee Agency, there are approximately 2.5 million refugees, more than half of which are children. Not only do such atrocities conflict with the moral fiber of democracy, but also present serious risks to the economic well-being and security of the United States. Current research as well as historical reference illustrate that U.S foreignRead MoreSyrian Activists Main Goals1829 Words   |  8 PagesSyrian activists’ main goal from these talks was always about the formation of a transitional government enjoying full executive powers, without Assad in the picture; while, naming the members of this transitional governing body and the immediate start of performing its functions; followed by a ceasefire throughout the nation. These goals were, more or less, achieved through the passing of the France-US document; that included the point of cessation of hostilities among the warring parties and theRead MoreSample Resume : Syrian Refugees Essay2325 Words   |  10 PagesIntroduction: Syrian refugees in Kansas On September of 2015, the image of 3-year-old Aylan Kurdi went viral. â€Å"The toddler’s lifeless body on a Turkish beach had reverberated across the globe† (Parkinson George-Cosh, 2015). Aylan’s family had â€Å"fled the brutal civil war in their native Syria and only attempted the boat crossing after Canada denied their application of admission as refugees. The image led to an astonishing outpouring of support for Syrian refugees† (Hein Niazi, 2016). PresidentRead MoreThe Most Important National Security Threat1656 Words   |  7 Pagescountry is the migration crisis. Middle East’s conflicts, especially Syria’s civil war have created an influx of refuges outflow. Greece is the main point of entry in the Western â€Å"Balkan Route†; migrants’ access trek to desirable northern European â€Å"destination countries†. This humanitarian crisis raises serious security concerns regarding terrorism and nationalism but also economic concerns as Greece is facing an intense financial recession. Moreover, this migration crisis tests the European Union’sRead MoreThe Syrian Crisis And How We May Resolve It?1461 Words   |  6 PagesUlises Navarro-Santibanez Mrs. Gallos English 3 Honors 6 November 2015 What is the Syrian Crisis and how we may resolve it? The crisis in Syria began with two students who began to show defying motifs against the Syrian government, by displaying graffiti, who were later tried and executed by the Syrian government. Citizens responded with protests, which ultimately led to the military confronting them and killing protesters. With these acts of violence, a rebellion occurred in which civilians forcefullyRead MoreImplications Of The Involement Of Neighboring Countries1599 Words   |  7 PagesQ2. IMPLICATIONS OF THE INVOLEMENT OF NEIGHBORING COUNTRIES 1. Regional Implications The continuous conflict and seemingly unending civil war in Syria has made the refugee settlement mission a difficult task. The persistent state of fear has given rise to security controls across the border, and the incessant displacement of people from Syria has increased vulnerability amongst refugees seeking asylum. The number of refugees has grown steadily and has reached a disturbing number of 235,000 according

Is the Life-Span Approach Essential to Human Development

Human development has been a subject of interest among modern researchers. The most prominent theory in human development is the life-span approach which is made up of various concepts. This essay aims to show the importance of the life-span approach by analysing some of the concepts that make up this approach, such as multi-directionality historical location and contexualism among others. This essay will critically analyse some of the assumptions of the life-span approach. It will also examine arguments against the lifespan approach as well as other theories of human development such as Freud’s psychoanalytic theory with the aim of showing that this approach is essential for understanding human development. One of the major assumptions†¦show more content†¦In southafrica research shows that black children who lived during the apatheid era ended up in sqatter camps without any aducation, with poor sanitation no recreation facilities and high health risks, this forced some to join ganges. Removal from their land also caused identity confusion which is a very important developmental task according to Erikson. showng that historcal context brings with it a unique experience that individuals are exposed to and this has a great impact on one’s developmet reafirming the claim tht the life-span approach is important in understanding human development. It has also been brought to attention that the research methods used by life-span researchers are to some extent unreliable and may produce inaccurate information. As critics of this approach have noted life-span researchers mainly use introspection, questioning and obsarvation for example Elder, (1998) on his study of children of the great depression admits that they would ask the subjects on how they thought the great depression influenced their lives, Havighurst also used the same technique in his study of developmental tasks and this is problematic since subjects are most likely unware of their developmental tasks and deficits (Sugarman, 1986). He went on to say researcherShow MoreRelatedErik Erikson s Theory And Theory908 Words   |  4 Pagesidea that early life experiences impact the person across their lifespan. Erikson’s developmental theory discusses the eight stages of life and the forces and values that arise at each stage, which should be developed within this f rame. The attachment theory focuses on the interaction an individual has and the impact it may have on their psychological and social development. Both theories believe that personality begins to develop from a young age and therefore occurrences in early life can have lastingRead MorePsychological Factors That Influence Human Behavior1079 Words   |  5 PagesPsychological Factors That Influence Human Behaviour Throughout The Life course. Introduction; According to Crawford and Walker(2010), the life course is defined in literature as, â€Å"The progression and path an individual takes from conception to death.† (Crawford and walker, 2012, p.3). The study of the life course and human development is extremely complex and could be described as interdisciplinary as it encompasses many fields of study. When examining the life course of individuals it is necessaryRead MoreErikson s Psychosocial Theory Personality924 Words   |  4 PagesLife Span Development involves a process of age-related changes that individuals go through beginning from birth though old age. Individuals can undergo physical, psychological, behavioral, and social changes that can impact the development of personality. According to Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory personality evolves through several stages of development (Zastrow Kirst-Ashman, 2015). One of the benefits of having a cross-cultural perspective in regards to life span development is that it allowsRead MoreThe Theories Of Human Mind And Behavior1138 Words   |  5 PagesPsychology refers to the scientific study of all the aspects of human mind and behavior. Psychology is broadly categorized in various branches that deeply analyze different concepts of human behavior. In Human Growth and Development, full perceptions of the process of human development are covered in detail evaluating various stages of human growth. As such, this aspect provides an overview of the stages of human life from birth through the middle stages to the adult stage. Some various theoriesRead MoreThe Industrial Revolution Sparked Invention1349 Words   |  6 Pagesour future generations and what we are leaving behind for them. It is estimated that by 2050 we will run out of most of the metal resources. Metals are an essential part of us our survival. It can seriously affect the way we on earth. Sustainable development is the key to a brighter future with less waste production. Sustainable development involves three major sectors, social, economical and environmental. When considering these aspects separate, we can see that solution to a problem creatingRead MoreEssay on 20th Century Approaches in Early Childhood Education861 Words   |  4 Pagesthere are many kinds of programs and approaches used in early childhood education? The 20th century was the start of inclusive classrooms and about the idea of education for all. Education in the early preschool years boomed with early childhood development programs. While there are many popular approaches, I find that Maria Montessori and Rudolf Steiner have the reliable strait forward and captivating approaches to early childhood education. Maria Montessori has an educational method that is inRead MoreThe Different Stages Of Human Development1617 Words   |  7 PagesThe different stages of human development can be vast in dimension. The chosen age group was childhood (3-12 years) or also called the juvenile period consist of various features of its age group. Early to middle childhood features such as physical, emotional, cognitive, and social aspects have their growing and specific developments compared to other human developmental stages. Also, different theoretical perspectives will substantiate the selected developmental stage and which is most usefulRead MoreThe Effects Of Family Systems On Healthy Development1512 Words   |  7 PagesThe Affects of Family Systems on Healthy Development Relationship between Family Systems and Development Family systems are essential to the healthy development of a child. Family systems and development go hand in hand. Children who come from a healthy family system are more likely to have a healthy development. Children who come from an unhealthy family system are more likely to have an unhealthy development. According to David V. Papero (2014), â€Å"Murray Bowen developed a family systems theoryRead MoreDoes an Infant’s Temperament Shape His/Her Cognitive and Socio-Emotional Development?1333 Words   |  6 Pagescognitive, socio-emotional development. I will discuss various theories of human development, identify the social and emotional domains development and how they affect temperament. I will discuss the eight stages of socialization according to Eric Erikson, and the cultural perspectives of temperament. A person’s temperament, biology, environment, and even attachment to others can affect how social the individual is. Temperament is an important aspect of emotional development. Temperament is theRead MoreThe Theory Of Education On Children s Brain Development1493 Words   |  6 Pages In life there is always something going on in the background and music surrounds us every day whether we notice it or not. So why not intrigue students by bringing it into the classroom? There is a lot of benefits to having music in the classroom and it helps students expand on their knowledge. However, to bring it into the classroom a teacher needs to acknowledge how children learn. There is a multitude of research on children’s brain development. Therefore let us dive into the findings and beliefs

The direct effects of Johnes disease Free Essays

Introduction Mycobacterium avium races paratuberculosis ( MAP ) is the causative agent of an incurable, infective, chronic, granulomatous enteritis in ruminants, called Johne ‘s disease or paratuberculosis. The direct effects of Johne ‘s disease on animate being public assistance and productiveness may look insignificant and are frequently masked by the mostly subclinical character of the disease in domesticated farm animal ( incubation period prior to the oncoming of clinical marks by and large ranges from 2 to 10 old ages ) { { 1 Lepper, A.W. We will write a custom essay sample on The direct effects of Johnes disease or any similar topic only for you Order Now 1989 } } { { 2 Chiodini, R.J. 1984 } } .The economic impact of JohneA?s on dairy cowss industries is significant. Estimated costs as a consequence of reduced weight addition, milk production loss, premature culling and decreased carcase value add up to an one-year sum of $ 250 million ( USD ) in the United States industry entirely { { 3 Ott, S.L. 1999 } } . More recent in-depth estimations indicate a important relationship being between Johne ‘s disease position and decreased milk production { { 51 Smith, R.L. 2009 } } , increased hazard of being culled { { 40 Smith, R.L. 2010 } } and a reduced calving rate in high sloughing animate beings. The on-going contention refering the possible function of MAP in Crohn ‘s disease ( human inflammatory intestine disease ) suggests that MAP itself might be of great public wellness significance { { 17 Hermon-Taylor, J. 2000 } } . 1.2. Transmission of MAP Cattles are most susceptible to infection as calves from birth to a few months of age { { 27 Taylor, A.W. 1953 ; 55 Windsor, P.A. 2010 } } , but can besides be infected as grownups { { 28 Doyle, T.M. 1951 } } .Transmission of MAP can happen by a assortment of paths in dairy cowss ; horizontally by consumption of MAP from the environment, or vertically from dike to calf. Evidence of intrauterine transmittal and sloughing of MAP in milk and foremilk has been reported by several surveies { { 5 Nielsen, S.S. 2008 ; 25 Seitz, S.E. 1989 ; 24 Sweeney, R.W. 1992 } } . Although calf-to-calf transmittal has besides been demonstrated in several experimental scenes where calves are being housed together { { 52 RANKIN, J.D. 1961 ; 53 new wave Roermund, H.J. 2007 } } horizontal infection from cattles to calves and perpendicular infection from dike to calf are believed to be the most common and most of import infection paths in dairy cowss. Previous surveies besides describe that calves born from positive tested dikes were at a significantly higher hazard of going Map infected than calves without this risk-profile. Besides calves turning up with a future high spiller and calves being born shortly following the freshening of an septic dike were at higher hazard being infected { { 29 Benedictus, A. 2008 } } . 1.3. Treatment A ; control Presently, there is no satisfactory intervention for the disease. No disinfectants are approved for the intervention of Johne ‘s disease because of their deficiency of efficiency and their failure to supply bacteriological remedy. A vaccinum for Johne ‘s disease exists but is non really normally used because it interferes with the reading of the current TB tegument trial and its inability to wholly forestall infection { { 44 Muskens, J. 2002 } } . Consequently JohneA?s disease is presently controlled via control plans that implement a assortment of production patterns. The most cost-efficient option for cut downing the prevalence of MAP infection in herds is application of hazard direction steps to interrupt known transmittal paths { { 6 Groenendaal, H. 2003 ; 16 Kudahl, A.B. 2009 } } . Current MAP control plans are risk-based. Management-wise, animate beings are divided into high and low hazard animate beings, by looking at the consequences of 4 one-year showings that test all lactating cattles for MAP specific antibodies in the milk { { 47 Nielsen, S.S. 2011 } } . Particular production pattern recommendations are provided for pull offing bad animate beings and these recommendations chiefly focus on within-herd MAP transmittal { { 46 Nielsen, S.S. 2007 } } .According to recent surveies, implementing patterns that can minimise the exposure of MAP to newborn calves should take precedence in control plans { { 45 Pillars, R.B. 20 11 } } . However, control steps are really expensive and non cost-effective. Current control steps do non take into history that MAP can be transmitted vertically and ignores the possibility that there is familial fluctuation in cowss associated with differential susceptibleness to Johne ‘s doing girls of septic dikes more likely to be infected even if hygiene steps are implemented absolutely at birth. 1.4. Heritability of susceptibleness Considerable work on linkage between genetic sciences and the opposition, tolerance or susceptibleness to Mycobacterium avium races paratuberculosis. Heritability of susceptibleness to infection with MAP has been estimated from 0.06 to 0.159 { { 18 Koets, A.P. 2000 ; 31 Mortensen, H. 2004 ; 37 Hinger, M. 2008 ; 38 Attalla, S.A. 2010 } } . The broad fluctuation in these extimates can be explained by differences in definition of infection and nosologies ( blood or milk ELISA, faecal civilizations, tissue civilizations ) , sample sizes, survey population ( breed ) and statistical theoretical accounts ( assorted animate being theoretical account, beget theoretical account ) used. Two genome-wide surveies have identified venue for resistence or susceptibleness to infection by MAP utilizing Illumina Bovine SNP50 assay { { 32 Settles, M. 2009 ; 33 Minozzi, G. 2010 } } . A SNP on chromosome 9 ( BTA9 ) is associated with casting ( being faecal civilization positive ) when genuinely infected ( tissue civilization positive { { 32 Settles, M. 2009 } } and being ELISA positive { { 33 Minozzi, G. 2010 } } . Zanella et Al. performed an association survey on the same dataset as Settles et Al. and found BTA6 to be associated with tolerence to paratuberculosis { { 43 Zanella, R. 2011 } } . Several campaigner cistrons identified by these genome-wide surveies have been examined for farther association with infection. Attempts to turn up cistrons associated with susceptibleness or opposition to paratuberculosis hold had limited success. Pinedo et al 2009 identified an association of caspase enlisting sphere 15 ( CARD15 ) with infection { { 34 Pinedo, P.J. 2009 } } , while a separate comparative analysis of bovine, murine, and human CARD15 transcripts suggest no important associations between fluctuation in the CARD15 and disease position { { 41 Taylor, K.H. 2006 } } .Toll-like receptor 4 ( TLR4 ) was associated with infection in recent work by Mucha et Al. 2009 but was non associated with infection in a coincident independent analysis { { 49 Pinedo, P.J. 2009 } } . Tendency towards association between infection and variant allelomorphs of the SLC11A1gene ( once NRAMP1 ) { { 34 Pinedo, P.J. 2009 } } is consistent with a population-based familial association survey carried out by Ruiz-Larranaga et Al. { { 42 Ruiz-Larranaga, O. 2010 } } , but conflicting consequences were presented by a population ba sed association survey by Hinger et Al. 2007 { { 39 Hinger, M. 2007 } } . Hinger et Al. and Minozzi used ELISA-tests as a diagnostic step to sort animate beings as septic whereas Pinedo et Al. used a combination of ELISA and faecal civilization to specify infection and Settles et Al used faecal and tissue civilization. The complexness of the intracellular infective disease Mycobacterium avium races paratuberculosis causes suggests engagement of many different cistrons that perchance interact with one another and with external factors from the environment. In add-on, the different procedures involved in early disease and late disease are yet ill-defined and may besides be reflected in the different venue found to be associated with the categorization of the type of infection. Particularly because pathogenesis of the disease is non to the full understood and sensitiveness of ELISA trials is rather low in latent or low casting animate beings { { 10 McKenna, S.L. 2006 ; 54 Eamens, G.J. 2000 } } { { 50 Nielsen, S.S. 2008 } } , case-control association surveies that use chiefly tissue and fecal nosologies in order to find the true infection position of the cow present the most dependable consequences. 1.5. Vertical transmittal To look into the importance of perpendicular transmittal, old surveies tried to find the prevalence of foetal infection in cowss and estimated the incidence of calves infected via in utero transmittal. On norm, approximately 9 % of foetuss from subclinically infected cattles ( faecal civilization positive ) and 39 % from clinical cattles were infected with MAP prior to deliver { { 4 Whittington, R.J. 2009 } } . Harmonizing to Whittington and Windsor { { 4 Whittington, R.J. 2009 } } existent prevalence of foetal MAP infection would be higher than reported because some of the methods and protocols used in these surveies to handle and prove samples have really low specificity { { 54 Eamens, G.J. 2000 } } . The estimated incidence of calf infection derived via the in utero path depends on within-herd prevalence and the ratio of sub-clinical to clinical instances among septic cattles. The mean perpendicular infection rates mentioned above are derived from the consequence of five independent surveies published between 1980 and 2003. 1.6 Strain typewriting Current developments in molecular genetic sciences make it possible to disciminate Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis strains with different fingerprinting techniques { { 36 Motiwala, A.S. 2006 } } . These techniques can besides be used as a tool to look into the possibility of perpendicular transmittal by comparing strains carried by the dike with strains carried by the girl. When comparing different MAP fingerprinting techniques, the Multi Locus Short Sequence Repeat technique utilizing all 11 venues selected by Amonsin et Al. 2004 has the highest prejudiced power with a Simpsons diverseness index of 0.967 { { 36 Motiwala, A.S. 2006 } } . Harris et Al. 2006 used four of these identified repetitions ( locus 1, venue 2, locus 8 and locus 9 ) to distinguish MAP strains { { 21 Harris, N.B. 2006 } } . To analyze diverseness of the selected MAP isolates we used these same four venue for MLSSR analysis and added venue 3, venue 5, venue 6, locus 10 and locus 11 in order to observe more diverity among dam and daughter isolates. Strain typing methods to longitudinal datasets can now supply us with extra penetration into within herd infection kineticss, including the transmittal of MAP from dikes to girls. How to cite The direct effects of Johnes disease, Essay examples

Evidence Based Decision Making Administrators and Professionals

Questions: 1. How readily can the concepts of evidence-based decision making be applied in the strategic decision making of health service management executives? Justify your arguments. 2.What leadership style(s) is/are most suitable to manage strategic changes in health care? Justify your answer which includes providing examples of strategic health changes. Answers: 1. Evidence based decision making process can be implemented with the strategic decision making in a health care organisation, with objective of maintaining work continuity and achieving effectiveness in care delivery (Lgar, 2014). Health care executives, administrators and professionals uses the evidence from various researches to implement their opinion, knowledge, and perspectives within their decision-making process of routine care delivery. This concept of clinical services has become an integral part of health care centres all over the world, owing to the fact of proven efficacies in care outcomes, which has been further explained with an example, that can provide clear understanding. Use of evidence-based decision making helps the managers to make strategic planning about how to organise, deliver and operate the health services (Lgar, 2014). For instance, the Australian government uses demographic information, population dynamics, incidence of diseases, and effectiveness of medication (post-marketing surveillance) within the pharmaceutical companies, which allows easy access of the prescribed medicines for community. The measure is also effective in terms that it makes the medication production, cost effective (due to presumed market demand) (Alonso-Coello, 2016). Another example illustrates Australian childhood immunization register which uses the evidence based vaccination policy. According to their earlier statistics, the estimated cost for the vaccination for childhood immunization was supposed to increase from $6 million annually to around $60 million. Here in this case population based observational information was used in determining the increased profit, in conjunction to the expanded vaccination policy (Barry Edgman-Levitan, 2012). The above-mentioned example thus illustrates how the evidence based decision making process renders cost effective solution to manage the health requirement of Australian community, thereby also offering access to medication and immunisation requirements. Similarly, in another case of Australian medical care related to optometrists, the above technique of evidence-based decision making has been used. This clinical practice here includes the diagnosis, analysis, and supervision of dry eye. The Australian optometrists mostly used the phenol red test and tear osmolality test based on the research evidence data of dry eye (Alonso-Coello, 2016). These primary sources of evidence further helped the optometrist practitioners in their routine clinical services that in turn is reflective with optimal standards in managing care delivery of commonwealth. A statistical analysis was done on Australian women suffering from polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) based on the evidence based guidelines, which was subsidized by the Government of Australia (Department of health and ageing). According to the evidence, about 21% of the Australian reproductive-age are facing PCOS, and mostly who are weighty. Thus, in the year 2003, a conclusion was made on PCOS by the Rotterdam consensus workshop based on the guideline and according to it, ultrasound of either oligo or anovulation and polycystic ovaries is implemented as an effective diagnostic tool. Similarly, another such instance was seen in the year 2003, where the national health and research council of Australia provided the evidence based guidelines for the acute low back pain (LBP) to every Australian practitioner. According to the evidence the practitioners supported either of the two methods, that is conducting x-ray if fracture is detected and another is providing appropriate treatment. While it should be noted that practitioners should not implement these evidences blindly, rather they should do proper research and study before implementation in routine services (Melnyk, Gallagher?Ford, Long Fineout?Overholt, 2014). Thus, these examples, explain how the evidence-based decision making is helpful in managing the standards of care delivery and managing customer satisfaction. 2. Change is the key to success for every organisation, especially the health care organisation, where strategic changes have potential to manage the effectiveness and brings positive outcomes. The change can be in the form of structure of the health care departments or in the selection of the treatment procedure, or in the treatment instruments. In this regard, it is noteworthy to mention that the implementation of the change or the innovation might not work properly, because of the wrong implementation procedure (Daly, Jackson, Mannix Hutchinson, 2014). Thus, in a health care organisation proper management and implementation of the change is a matter of key concern which needs to be handled effectively by the medical leaders. For a successful strategic health change management, the medical leader has to properly evaluate, plan and implement the necessary actions and strategies needed. Additionally, the proper coordination of medical leaders and other health care staffs is requisit e to implement the change successfully. The various leadership qualities needed for efficient strategic change management are: Charismatic leadership- In a health care management, a medical leader should be charismatic in order to drive transformation among the medical staffs to successfully implement change in the department. They give new strategic view and preview its positive outcomes to gain maximum support from the staffs (Fulop Mark, 2013). They identify their staffs needs, which includes doctors, nurses, technicians, pharmacists and other employees and bring the change accordingly. Notably, in some cases the patients also disagree to implement the change in the health care system to avoid the risk factor. Thus, a charismatic leader can only direct them towards the change with the use of communication, mentor relationship, and visionary for long term benefits. Visionary leadership- A visionary medical leader has the potential to change the vision of implementation into reality. This leadership style helps in proper evaluation, analysis of the outcomes, and manages the results from the change implementation into visionary objective. Notably, the visionary leader has characteristics of making use of evidences in strategic change plans and also have effective communication skills to convince others (Hurley Hutchinson, 2013). Transformational leadership- The transformational medical leader will always try to initiate change in the health care system by virtue of their perspectives, wisdom, evidence, and justified rationale. They motivate the medical staffs, the senior management and the patients to follow and implement the change in the medical procedure, which in turn is always effective in managing the standards of outcomes (Sebastian, 2014). They use challenging steps to get the higher result in course of time, which marks their attitude of strategic decision making distinct from other leaders. Strategic leadership- A strategic leader within health care settings is generally the head of the organisation, who is always willing to provide change in the research, procedures and medicines. The leaders should provide proper medical training to the doctors and nurses to adopt the new procedures. Note that strategic leader always make use of evidence in the process of strategic planning (Hurley Hutchinson, 2013). Likewise, they also put emphasis on the training and education related framework to bring optimal competency level in their employees. Correspondingly, they also make rationalised usage of evaluation and monitoring framework to achieve efficacy in their implemented strategic changes. References: Alonso-Coello, P., Schnemann, H. J., Moberg, J., Brignardello-Petersen, R., Akl, E. A., Davoli, M., Morelli, A. (2016). GRADE Evidence to Decision (EtD) frameworks: a systematic and transparent approach to making well informed healthcare choices. 1: Introduction.bmj,353, i2016. Alonso-Coello, P., Oxman, A. D., Moberg, J., Brignardello-Petersen, R., Akl, E. A., Davoli, M., Guyatt, G. H. (2016). GRADE Evidence to Decision (EtD) frameworks: a systematic and transparent approach to making well informed healthcare choices. 2: Clinical practice guidelines.bmj,353, i2089. Barry, M. J., Edgman-Levitan, S. (2012). Shared decision makingthe pinnacle of patient-centered care.New England Journal of Medicine,366(9), 780-781. Daly, J., Jackson, D., Mannix, J., Hutchinson, M. (2014). The importance of clinical leadership in the hospital setting.J Healthc Leadersh,6, 75-83. Fulop, L., Mark, A. (2013). Relational leadership, decision-making and the messiness of context in healthcare.Leadership,9(2), 254-277. Hurley, J., Hutchinson, M. (2013). Setting a course: a critical review of the literature on nurse leadership in Australia.Contemporary nurse,43(2), 178-182. Lgar, F., Stacey, D., Turcotte, S., Cossi, M. J., Kryworuchko, J., Graham, I. D., Donner?Banzhoff, N. (2014). Interventions for improving the adoption of shared decision making by healthcare professionals.The Cochrane Library. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006732.pub3 Melnyk, B. M., Gallagher?Ford, L., Long, L. E., Fineout?Overholt, E. (2014). The establishment of evidence?based practice competencies for practicing registered nurses and advanced practice nurses in real?world clinical settings: proficiencies to improve healthcare quality, reliability, patient outcomes, and costs.Worldviews on Evidence?Based Nursing,11(1), 5-15. Sebastian, A., Fulop, L., Dadich, A., Fitzgerald, A., Kippist, L., Smyth, A. (2014). Health LEADS Australia and implications for medical leadership.Leadership in Health Services,27(4), 355-370.

Dimensions to Political Thinking Human Equality, Power, and Order

Fuel Tax Essay Example

Fuel Tax Essay Example Fuel Tax Essay Fuel Tax Essay Do you just want cheaper fuel to increase your income? To become a popular Government? Squeeze more profit for your firm? Protect the environment? Break car dependence? These questions are a sign of the ever-increasing pressure for and against a reduction in fuel tax. The governments reluctance to openly discuss its policy has caused a real clouding of the arguments causing a general sense of frustration. This essay addresses both sides of the arena in the pursuit of bringing clarity and reason to an emotional topic. This essay uses the term petrol as defined to be a flammable fuel used in internal combustion engines(Oxford Con Dic, 1989: 425), thus including diesel, as well as unleaded vehicles. The issues that are covered are externalities, tax, public transport, who the tax effects, and utility. The arguments are ordered against a reduction then for a reduction. Over the last 30 years, with the rise of environmental awareness, the externalities connected with the use of motor vehicles have caused major concern to society and has presented a strong argument against a reduction in petrol tax. Pigovian taxes are the best way to correct for the negative impact of externalities by taking into account the social costs of using petrol to such a great extent. These social costs: health, congestion, environmental breakdown and accidents all need correcting. Every time you burn petrol you generate pollution in the atmosphere with carbon dioxide, thus increasing global warming and health problems e.g. asthma, bronchitis, and other respiratory disorders. Congestion causes lost opportunity costs from unproductive time wasted. Accidents cannot be measured accurately as the loss of intellectual productivity cannot account for future possibilities. The best way is to allocate efficiency with social cost added to the pricing model. : As we see in figure 1: The marginal private cost curve is MPC. D is also the marginal benefit curve. Marginal cost exceeds MPC. In a competitive market, output is Qo, price is Po. When a Pigovian tax is imposed to show the social costs, then MSC becomes the MC for suppliers decisions. The price rises to P1 and the quantity falls to Q1: the point of allocation efficiency (Parkin, King 1995: 527). With the market failure and the externalities addressed the government can gather the tax revenue and tackle the social costs with revenue generated, which brings the price into alignment with their external costs. To look closer at the nature of tax and its winners and losers will reveal that all the tax is past onto the consumer in accordance with its inelastic properties. As the rules of tax state, with the fall in quantity demanded being smaller than the price reduction (in percentages). The consumer will be saddled with the larger cut of tax in the short run and all the tax in the long run. Therefore, the consumer is paying for all the externalities and the firm that profits from supplying petrol: pays nothing. As seen above in figure 1, there is a dead weight loss, which is caused from the reduction in the quantity demanded. This welfare loss has been minimized, however, this shows the petrol sectors ability to sustain large tax increases. The lack of response by motorists to the increases in the price of petrol causes the tax to become very appealing for revenue generation. The quantity demanded does not drop much after a tax increase. This shows how large amounts of money can be raised easily. In 1999/2000, fuel duties (excluding VAT) raised à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½22.3 billion, which is 6% of the total governments revenue (HM Treasury 46: 2000). The market for fuel is able the bear a large tax charge and the extent of the market is sizable too. Six pence on all road fuel duties raises as much money as one penny on the basic rate of income tax (HM Treasury 44: 1999). The suppliers and the government are seen to raise huge amounts of revenue from highly taxed petrol. In response to the argument for a reduction in petrol tax as the large amounts of revenue generate seem excessive and appear to be public and private profiteering. With the revenue being re-invested in infrastructure as the government is committed to doing. In the Chancellors Pre-Budget Speech in November 1999, [we] are now in a position instead of the pre-announced 6 per cent escalator-to make our decisions Budget by Budget with the following commitment: if there are any real term rises in road fuel duties, the revenues will go straight to a ring-fenced fund for the modernisation of roads and public transport (Smith, 2000; 8) These pledged billions give the vehicle user a real choice. The need to break car dependency and shift back the demand curve back instead of a taxing shift along the demand curve will reduce drivers by more. See figure 2: The option of substitute transport will make the driver fell they do have a choice to private vehicles. Investment of the revenue from petrol tax is a great asset. Much more than the revenue from the mandatory car tax gives. These improvements are necessary, as the infrastructure needs modernizing. This alternative will drop demand by giving a substitute drivers can rely on. The haulage industry will use it to put its freight back on the railways, if confidence were restored. A solid public transport system reduces demand without tax by using the revenue to change behaviour on petrol reliance. People are not adverse to tax increases if they know where the money is being spent. There is no way to guarantee that the money allocated to spending on roads and public transport is actually going to be spent in these areas. With the state of the rail system, the amount of congestion and the crackdown on accidents by fines, which many see as a new source of revenue, we are not seeing the benefits from the high petrol taxes: the highest in Europe. See figure 3: Unleaded petrol UK 55.47 Netherlands 44.84 Italy 42.93 Germany 40.12 Austria 32.35 Spain 28.04 Figure 3. European petrol duty and VAT, pence per litre With these high prices drivers expect to see improvements. This is the essence of their frustration. The modernization the government speaks of has not shown many tangible results. The alternative transport needed has not improved enough to encourage drivers to alter their actions and onto public transport. The cost of living taken across different household groups shows that an increase on petrol tax hits the poorest car owner, as well as, rural dwellers (Smith, 2000: 4). These are the people that need a substitute of public transport. Their incomes and budget constraints are the most susceptible to price rises. The governments lack of results in modernizing and producing a good transport alternative are just rationalizations for easy revenue. As with firms supplying homogeneous product we should be aware of the likelihood for them to maximise their profits in the event of a reduction in petrol tax. If the government were to give a 10 percent decrease in fuel tax the firms would not pass on all the savings to the customer. The small differences in price on the petrol forecourt do suggest price fixing, although illegal, it is difficult to prove. The petrol suppliers might, for example, pass on an 8 percent reduction and profit from the other 2 percent. This is a problem in a homogeneous market with few firms, indicative of the markets for natural resources. Although petrol users are also trying to increase their position by fuel tax being reduced. The Government are looking after all interests. These three groups are all willing to maximise their utility. As well as income utility there is utility as a quantitative measure of psychological satisfaction (Etrzioni, Lawrence, 1991: 86) present. The chance of promotion from mak ing more profits, getting something cheaper, or covering short falls in other public services are all difficult to value in financial terms. The inter conflict of interest will not allow for mutually beneficial trade. Rational self-interest depends in which of these groups you are, and to the same extent if you think this is an argument for or against a petrol tax reduction. In conclusion, we have seen that the taxes on petrol are in place to correct externalities by bringing adding social costs to show the real cost of vehicle use. This in turn has shown the petrol market to be one of high taxation with its inelastic nature. The revenue generated would regenerate the public transport sector to allow for alternative travel, although governments have failed to deliver. Tax affects vehicle users who need a substitute for car travel the most. And finally we saw utility maximisation pulling the debate in all directions. Tax reduction maybe a personal issue but there are rational arguments which need addressing to come to a solution in the best interests of society.

Should Parental Consent be required for a Minor to Obtain an Abortion Research Paper

Should Parental Consent be required for a Minor to Obtain an Abortion - Research Paper Example There are laws that restrict a teenager’s access to abortion. In many US states, there are laws that restrict minors under the age of 18 years from procuring an abortion unless their parents’ consent is obtained or they have involved the court. These laws take two forms. Some laws require a physician to seek a parent’s consent before procuring abortion on a minor (Cartoof & Klerman, 2011). Other laws require the parents to be notified before the procedure is performed. Parental involvement is primarily meant to protect the minors. In Planned Parenthood v. Casey, Judges Kennedy, O’Connor, and Souter were of the view that parental involvement and consent is intended to protect the children. The case was based on an assumption that minors will benefit from consultation with parents since parents have their best interests at heart. A study conducted by national researchers concluded that parents display a disappointment when their minors’ report pregnancy cases. However, parents don’t respond with violence, but parental stress is the most probable result of such announcements. Claims that minors may resort to unsafe alternatives, is untrue. A study of self-induced medical abortions in 2007 revealed this fact. In fact, many people who used such methods were adults! No cases were reported where minors resorted to unsafe abortion procedures after disclosing their pregnancy to their parents (Murphy, 2014). It has been established that many juvenile pregnancies result from rape or coercion. In fact, National studies reveal that 70% of teenage pregnancies result from adult sexual partners. These adults may want the minors to procure abortions to save themselves from lawful consequences. Laws on parental consent on abortions prevent such predatory practices on children. The Supreme Court succinctly explains why or how minors benefit from parental involvement.

Business Through The Eyes of Faith Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Business Through The Eyes of Faith - Essay Example This is a company formed in 1987, which has over time provided critical technological services to markets, administrations, institutions, and more (Business: Is There A Christian Perspective p. 15). Management team at the company is largely Christians and in equal measure pursues Christian principles in their activities. The expression made in this case is that, business is part of Christian activity that cannot be separated from the wider role and duty of Christians. Business is a social activity and the essence for it to act morally and ethically is inevitable. Christians and the larger human body that have direct or indirect involvement in business have a duty to honor God by pursuing ethical and moral business practices at all times. People can honor and remain obedient to God when they shoe ethical and moral value of their business activities. When one honors God’s creation (the people) then the person in same measure is able to honor God. Ethics and morals are seen to be fundamental principles that define success or failure of any particular given business, although, it has to be known that an individual or a corporation can have strong ethical values and morals but still fail to achieve its objectives when it ignores multi-dimensional perspective of the business. The author of this chapter introduces the concept of ‘Law of Nature’ which he subsequently transforms into an argument based on moral laws. The author contends that Law of Nature is a creation of a human who in one way or the other tries to control or manipulates the behavior of the other human being (The Law of Human Nature 1). Laws of Nature are intended to define what is right and what is wrong, thereby categorizing the appropriate behaviors, which society can accept or not (The Law of Human Nature p.1). Although Laws of Nature provide these guidelines for appropriate behavior, they

Is globalization a net benefit or disadvantage to the international Essay

Is globalization a net benefit or disadvantage to the international system - Essay Example 23), which is a symbol of unifying entities using selected ideologies. However, so many debates concerning the issues of whether globalization is of any benefits to the world or if it has negative impacts on international systems. So many arguments relate structural violence to globalization. In developed countries, such a situation helps them in overcoming most economic barriers (Guehenno: pp. 28). This notion has brought â€Å"westernization† because such countries have overpowered the international markets. In this case, structural violence disrupts peace globally. In return, such violence gives birth to disparity a catalyst to major conflicts. This could be the reason as to why there is widespread social polarization in the current international system. Through globalization, there is an evidence of imbalance in power in the international systems. Such imbalances lead to suspicions among countries, which in turn increase foreign policy costs and creating new kinds of threats (Baylis, Smith S. & Owens: pp. 110). The assumptions on threats are due to the change in global security. Already, the internet, intercontinental airlines, most media houses and international companies are among the pace setters in globalization. These global landmarks have led to interdependence. For this reason, countries are less concerned with the provision of security to other countries unless where they feel threatened. Nations with a common interest seem to gang up together with the aim of maximizing on the global nature by influencing most security matters. This, according to the arguments made by the Neo-Marxists, leads to inequality. A combination of all these issues revolving around structural violence results to global instability. The status of a nation in an international system is greatly affected by globalization. Through centralization, most states are under threat of losing monopoly

Extreme Weather Events In The Uk Environmental Sciences Essay

Extreme Weather Events In The Uk Environmental Sciences Essay Intro: Global Warming is an undisputable cause of climate change in which the major cause of climate change is mostly induced by humans (anthropogenic), and not simply by the natural course of nature. The severity of its effects to weather conditions is always increasing day by day. Extreme weather conditions may range from floodings, heatwaves, droughts and other severe weather conditions. We are now experiencing each year drier plus burning summer seasons due to the increase in heat waves and global warming, whilst we have warmer plus rainier winters as a result of increased rain, snow and hail precipitation. Even stormy weather is on the increase. [1- 4] Who does it affect?: This issue of random extreme weather conditions affects everyone in every national and local communities across the world (even in the UK), particularly the most vulnerable people.. Disruption to the normal farming conditions due to random climate change will cause an imbalance to the soil quality which will mean that crops will not be able to grow[5], and fewer animals will be fit for consumption due to the increase of food poisoning and water borne diseases, therefore farmers will lose out on potential job earnings. This will make farmers less likely to keep up with their bills and live less comfortably due to the reduced income. At the same time, it will affect us as there will a shortage of good, nutritional food. They may resort to increasing food prices. Since farmers supply food for many different food companies, it could indirectly pose problems to companies regarding the supply of food and marketing of their food products. Drought which is the result of increasing global temperatures can severely affect water supply companies. Water supply companies may increase their water usage prices by at least 5 percent each year[6] due to the drought and the ever increasing demand of water. Climate change and extreme weather can affect our health and make us more susceptible to much more illnesses than now and even cause death. Examples of illness conditions are hay fever, cataracts and skin cancer. It could even cause occurrences of Dengue fever and West Nile virus which are tropical diseases not normally found in the UK.[7] Temperature rises and heatwaves are becoming more frequent than usual. The Met Office conducted an interesting research which showed Englands highest temperature recorded in a day. One of the figures was particularly striking which was found in Kent from the southern part of England. It revealed that Kent had the highest temperature recorded in January 2003 which was 17.6 degrees, and 38.6 degrees in August 2003 showing a shocking 21 degrees increase in just above 6 months.[7] Such extreme temperatures can present health problems to these vulnerable people. When exposed to heat long enough, Heat exhaustion may result to these people and possibly may lead to dehydration and even heatstroke which is a life threatening medical condition. Also, it will increase the amount of harmful UV radiation contacting our skins so increasing our skin cancer risk. Since Britain may experience further increase in temperatures in the near future, this problem needs much attention. Moreover, the heatwaves may induce power cuts and increase water demand which will affect everyone including business people. Technology and water are in ever increasing demand therefore disabling the available technology around us due to power cuts, more droughts and increasing water bills may cause severe problems in our ability to cope without them at work and leisure. Also if business buildings are severely damaged, they may build a new building at another site which may cost more money than minor repair. Not only does it affect us humans, it affects plant and animal life too. More heatwaves and other severe weather conditions will increase the incidence of forest wildfires, contamination of river water and damage to habitats. This will harm the plant and animal wildlife and they may struggle to survive. It will ultimately lead to affecting our lifestyles in the long term.[8] Examples of damaging cases: In the UK (England and Wales), floods that occurred at Autumn in the year 2000 between October to November have resulted in massive damages which have costed at least  £1.3 billion.[1] That autumn was the wettest autumn season ever recorded since 1766, demonstrating more than 500mm of rainfall between September to November, and insurance claims up to  £3.5 billion were called for as a result of at least 10,000 flooded homes.[1, 3] . Another case in the UK that is increasing even today is in the farming industry. Due to climate change, there is now a rapid growth of certain parasitic worms particularly the Helminth family that are affecting cattle and sheep livestock (affects both young and adult livestock). The most common Helminths are the roundworms (gastrointestinal nematodes) and the flatworms (flukes). The roundworms are thought to drastically reproduce far more quickly in higher temperatures and adapt very well to its surroundings due to its biotic potential and genetic diversity.[9-10] This means that they can potentially thrive in all four seasons. Global Warming may increase mean daily temperatures and therefore cause a upsurge in the reproducing rate of roundworms.[9] A specific roundworm species called Teladorsagia grows really fast in the Spring and have been causing heavy damage to young lambs and even death in South East Scotland.[10] There had been an outbreak in 2004 of another specific roundworm called Nematodirus battus, which have adapted to the Scottish weather so that they grow not only in Summer but also Autumn and Winter. They have been seen in young and old lambs.[10] Furthermore, the European heatwave that the UK experienced in August 2003 was the hottest heatwave ever recorded. Altogether in Europe, 20,000 people died because of the heatwave. Out of this, a minimum of 2,000 people from the UK died as a result of excessive heat. One third of the 2,000 deaths in the UK were associated with air pollution. It even affected roads, train services, water and energy suppliers plus farmers. [11] Not only that, home building foundations (subsidence) were being damaged due to the drying of water from the soil and building foundations causing cracks to form and non-level home foundations. The subsidence insurance claims soared up to  £400 million. [12] Vulnerability of certain people types: In the UK, the magnitude of Heatwaves and rising sea levels (which may lead to larger wave heights, more floods and faster coastal erosion) are rising. Heatwave effects may be particularly significant in the South and East parts of the UK. These extreme weather conditions pose certain vulnerable individuals who:[2, 4] have low income support They cannot afford to buy accessories and other essential items that may help against short term and long term extreme weather problems. live in low quality constructed houses (particularly more found in coastal regions)- buildings will trap the heat, making their homes hotter and more susceptible to weaker house foundations. are elderly or quite young -more susceptibility to disease due to weaker immune systems. have poor health due to illness may increase their chances of catching other major or minor diseases, especially in cities. are isolated from social links finding environmental, social and emergency help may be harder live near the coastal regions -particularly in the East part of England as these coast have low lying, soft sediment coasts that erode much more quicker. Who live in cities referred as urban heat islands, which means that urban areas produce more heat than countryside towns. Makes them more susceptible to illnesses and possibly cause city infrastructure problems.[13] Cause of severe climate change and science: Many scientists agree that the major cause of the drastic climate change, global warming and extreme weather conditions are due to pollution mainly by certain human activities (anthropogenic) that emit greenhouse gases (nitrous oxide, water vapour, methane and carbon dioxide (CO2)). Of course there are natural equilibriums such as the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle and the water cycle that tries to balance the levels of these gases. Also, the ozone layer (O3) helps protect us from the harmful UV radiation from the sun. But these natural equilibriums have been disturbed by human activities. So now temperatures and sea levels are rising (glaciers in the Antarctica are melting as proof). [14-20] A few examples of the human activity that has damaged the natural cycles are:[14-20] the cutting of trees (deforestation) increases the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to burning of trees. Trees are important in the absorption of carbon dioxide and water from the environment using the process called photosynthesis to release oxygen (O2) to the environment. driving cars, buses and other transport (especially airplanes) build-up of carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere. Accounts for 21% of the emission of greenhouse gases in the UK. industrial cooling towers- increases the amount of heated water into the atmosphere. use of fertilisers and pesticides for farming the ones that contain nitrogen increase the levels of nitrogen in the biosphere via contamination of water due to heavy rainfall. Therefore it affects humans, fish and animals. Accounts for 8% of the emission of greenhouse gases in the UK. Burning of fossil fuels done to produce energy. The biggest contributor in the UK of releasing greenhouse gases to the atmosphere (65%). aerosols that contain CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) the CFCs are sent to the atmosphere in which the UV radiation frees the chlorine from the CFC. This chlorine damages the ozone (O3) layer in the atmosphere. Some may argue that natural causes are significant to the climate change effects. It is known that eruption of volcanoes, the output energy of the sun, ocean currents and Earths orbit changes do contribute to this but only play a minor role.[17,20] Who can influence change?: The UK Government can help with the mitigation and adaptation strategies for sustainability development which includes social, environmental and economic improvements. Mitigation is trying to reduce the levels of greenhouse gases in order to reduce the temperature rises. Adaptation involves doing things differently in our lives to reduce the level of greenhouse gases. They must consult with other business leaders and organisations to ensure mitigation and adaptation strategies are implemented for sustainability. It could help the UK unemployment issue whilst helping biodiversity. However, greener solutions may require lots of financial and political help to implement them, which is the challenge. They need to use short and long term strategies for success. What currently is happening and what extras can be done? A study found that London was producing 44.71 million tonnes of carbon dioxide in 2008 from which major culprit the business workplaces contributed by a shocking 19.2 million tonnes of carbon dioxide(43% of total). Also, homes and transport were emitting large amounts of carbon dioxide. The Mayor of Londons mitigation strategy to climate change is to lower London CO2 levels by 60% for 2025. It is currently under public consultation but sounds promising. The mitigation programmes include RE:FIT, RE:CONNECT, RE:NEW, the Green500, Electric Vehicle Rollout and Operation Decentralised Energy. It will involve installing new energy saving technology at businesses and homes, encouraging community to reduce CO2 levels, recycling waste into energy and get 1,000 electric vehicles and more. [21] Advantages are that it explores different ways that can bring a change in CO2 levels so results can be seen relatively quick, it may provide many jobs in a variety of sectors for the unemployed as it is a concerning issue in the UK, the scheme is easy to follow, helps people save more money in the long term. It may have problems with the project being expensive and refuelling electric or hydrogen fuelled vehicles as it may take longer. Overcoming resistance needs more public awareness about the benefits, business and public role models to show public being greener is possible, and easy. The Queen made a speech recently in which she said that policies and legislations of the energy security and green economy Bill are to be introduced and implemented by the Government into homes and business across the UK. This will enable more use of energy efficient technology whilst ensuring management of energy supply to keep up with energy demand, reduce greenhouse gases especially carbon dioxide, encourage people to coincide with the demands set by the Government, and fund more projects that help the economy whilst reducing greenhouse gases via the Green Investment Bank.[22] This sounds like a good idea for mitigation and adaptation towards climate change. In the UK, Business and Government Leaders like David Cameron need to encourage greener jobs for benefit of the environment, economy and society. Unemployment still is a big issue across the world. Many people including graduates are claiming unemployment benefits and are unable to find work due to the credit crunch. Women are especially finding it difficult. In March 2011, the number of men on the benefits are 988,200 whilst number of women are 462,300.[23] Recently, The Green Economy Council have fetched big business leaders (eg. Joe Greenwell, chairman of Ford UK) in its council to provide professional advice to the Government on policies that affect green business infrastructure, investment and regulation. They are setting up policies like Green Deal which may open a thousand new jobs. But policies need to be clearer on low carbon economy. [24-26] They have not considered solar energy which has the potential to thrive. Mazhar Bari of SolarPrint said in 10 years, it could create 10,000 jobs, à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬1 billion of exports and à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬140 million of annual tax revenue.[27] Public Biodiversity awareness needs to be more focused in the UK particularly to the medium/low class people due to low income. Certain celebrities can probably help with this. Solutions need to be easy, practical, involve little effort and cheap. Health adaptation policies look good like the Heatwave Plan, Climate Change Act 2008 and the Annual Public Health Report of the Director of Public Health 2010 have been introduced to help healthcare professionals and public adapt to climate change and help health sector Government bodies and media to raise awareness of solutions. Also, diet and health advice to public is given by healthcare professionals. [28,29] As far as farming is concerned in the UK, the Common Agricultural Policy needs to be reviewed again by DEFRA to convince the Government the benefits of the scheme.[30] Funding cuts to UK flood defence may have serious consequences as those seen in November 2010 at Cornwall where 5 million poor people were at risk from flood damage. I think some property insurance cover and belongings can help in advance of flooding event so that less money is spent in aid. [31] Conclusion: Much effort still needs to be done by everyone, although the Government and others have actively tried to reach sustainable development through mitigation and adaptive approaches. They seem to be in the correct frame of mind but farming and flood aid strategies still needs to be tackled.

Cloning :: essays research papers

Someone once said that if you give someone an inch they would take a foot. Biotechnologist would like to receive an inch of allowance from the government to start the cloning process here in the United States. The fear, however, that cloning may become too advanced is a relevant response. Cloning is the copying of genes, or DNA, of one organism to be used in the creation of an identical one. It is similar to genetic engineering, which is the manipulation of the genes. HOW IS CLONING DONE Cloning is said to be used for many positive reasons, but the fact remains that it has an equal, if not greater amount of negative side effects. Cloning is a field of science that is being taken too far and without strict regulations; it can lead to detrimental outcomes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many people state that if cloning were available then the medical field be more productive and successful than it is now. The reason is that cloning can produce human beings as well as animals that can be used for testing. Testing that can lead to the discovery of the causes of damaging diseases and defects in humans and animals alike. The testing would be performed on the cloned humans and animals. PUT IN INFO ABOUT HOW THEY FIND OUT ABOUT DISEASES!   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another supposed benefit of cloning would be the reinstatement of animals that have once thought to be extinct or are currently listed as endangered. These animals through DNA that has been preserved or discovered can be recreated. For example, like in the Steven Spielberg’s movie Jurassic Park, dinosaurs were recreated through DNA found in a preserved mosquito, which had extracted blood from the dinosaur millions of years ago. Likewise, animals such as the Dodo bird that are extinct or the giant panda that is on the verge of being extinct can be recreated and brought back to life in the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Finally, another popular reason that people are pushing to allow cloning is to aid in the production of organs. It has been said that human torsos can be recreated to allow for the use of the organs from the â€Å"body.† These torsos could be created to match up with all blood types. In turn, the organs and tissue from the â€Å"body† could be used for people who wait years for organs that they so desperately need. This type of cloning could also aid the medical field in the production of extremities that may be needed for people who currently rely on artificial limbs. Cloning :: essays research papers Someone once said that if you give someone an inch they would take a foot. Biotechnologist would like to receive an inch of allowance from the government to start the cloning process here in the United States. The fear, however, that cloning may become too advanced is a relevant response. Cloning is the copying of genes, or DNA, of one organism to be used in the creation of an identical one. It is similar to genetic engineering, which is the manipulation of the genes. HOW IS CLONING DONE Cloning is said to be used for many positive reasons, but the fact remains that it has an equal, if not greater amount of negative side effects. Cloning is a field of science that is being taken too far and without strict regulations; it can lead to detrimental outcomes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many people state that if cloning were available then the medical field be more productive and successful than it is now. The reason is that cloning can produce human beings as well as animals that can be used for testing. Testing that can lead to the discovery of the causes of damaging diseases and defects in humans and animals alike. The testing would be performed on the cloned humans and animals. PUT IN INFO ABOUT HOW THEY FIND OUT ABOUT DISEASES!   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another supposed benefit of cloning would be the reinstatement of animals that have once thought to be extinct or are currently listed as endangered. These animals through DNA that has been preserved or discovered can be recreated. For example, like in the Steven Spielberg’s movie Jurassic Park, dinosaurs were recreated through DNA found in a preserved mosquito, which had extracted blood from the dinosaur millions of years ago. Likewise, animals such as the Dodo bird that are extinct or the giant panda that is on the verge of being extinct can be recreated and brought back to life in the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Finally, another popular reason that people are pushing to allow cloning is to aid in the production of organs. It has been said that human torsos can be recreated to allow for the use of the organs from the â€Å"body.† These torsos could be created to match up with all blood types. In turn, the organs and tissue from the â€Å"body† could be used for people who wait years for organs that they so desperately need. This type of cloning could also aid the medical field in the production of extremities that may be needed for people who currently rely on artificial limbs.

Gender difference Essay

The article I read is â€Å"‘Health is not a man’s domain’: lay accounts of gender difference in life-expectancy in Russia†. The authors, Ilkka Pietila and Marja Rytkonen, examined the meaning of health to Russian lay people, conducting interview with 29 people aged 15-81. They concluded that the role of the individual in healthy responsibility is very weak, with a stronger emphasis on societal and governmental influence. They also found that in relation to gender, gender roles and relations are static with few alternatives despite social changes. This study was prompted by the large gender gap in life-expectancy in Russia. In 2006, the average life expectancy was 59 years for Russian men but 72 years for Russian women. Pietila and Rytkonen wanted to see if this gap was caused by gender perceptions of health and/or each other or by something else. The theoretical basis for this research is a process Frankel and Davison call ‘lay epidemiology’, which states that â€Å"individuals interpret health risks through the routine observation and discussion of cases of illness and death in personal networks and the public arena, as well as from formal and informal evidence arising from other sources, such as television and magazines (p. 071). The researchers discerned â€Å"four types of explanations: essential/naturalist explanations (biological and psychological differences), explanations related to social roles, explanations related to social change and explanations related to health behavior† (p. 1075). They also found that these explanations often centered around one health behavior: heavy drinking. This article is a great because of its discussion the masculinity behind drinking, as well as the cultural aspects yet how the women tended to see drinking as more of a health hazard then the men who participate in it. The phenomenon of the gender gap and the cultural aspects of drinking add unique curveballs to solving the health crisis in Russia today. An article like this one is very important because it illustrates factors that need to be considered when coming up with a public health policy for Russia. For example, this findings of this research would support the argument that prohibition would not work in reducing alcoholism in Russia; alcohol’s cultural significance is too strong for such a policy to have any ‘lay’ support. The article also noted its limitations. The authors only interviewed subjects in St. Petersburg, which is one of the more Westernized cities in Russia and is more likely to have an higher educated and socioeconomic population compared with the majority of Russia. The authors conceded that this population dynamic may have skewed the results. They also admit that their research sample was small (only 29 people interviewed), although they did their best to have a variety of ages and occupations within these people. One excellent point in the researcher’s methodology is the use of native-Russian speakers to conduct the interviews, and having men interview men and women interview women. The use of native speakers would allow for the nuances of language and communication to be picked up. The gender separation also nullifies the possibility that gender biases would have taken place during the interviews.

I Just Got Wise to Comprise

I Just Got Wise to Comprise I Just Got Wise to â€Å"Comprise† I Just Got Wise to â€Å"Comprise† By Mark Nichol I have a confession to make. I’ve been doing it wrong all these years. Throughout my long editing career, I have corrected writers who erroneously use the word comprise, as in â€Å"The federal government is comprised of the executive, the legislative, and the judicial branches.† Comprise means â€Å"to include, to be made up of, to constitute,† so what I’ve always considered appropriate here is consists: â€Å"The federal government consists of the executive, the legislative, and the judicial branches.† â€Å"Is comprised of† wrong. â€Å"Consists of† right. So far, so good. But though I usually follow the advice of various writing and editing guides that recommend, because of the perils of comprise, avoiding the use of the word altogether, I occasionally resort to it in my own writing not in the erroneous usage shown above, but on its own. However, as I discovered just today while working on a post about problem words, even then, I’ve been using it wrong all along. For some reason, somewhere along the line, I misread the dictum that when it comes to comprise, the whole comprises the parts. (â€Å"The federal government comprises the executive, the legislative, and the judicial branches.†) Instead, I’ve always constructed the sentence the wrong way. (â€Å"The executive, the legislative, and the judicial branches comprise the federal government.†) See for yourself. Search for comprise on this site. I’ll wait. I (along with other DailyWritingTips.com contributors) have routinely gotten it backward. How could I misunderstand that rule in all the grammar guides I’ve read? I readily admit that I have not yet mastered the English language. While editing and while writing alike, I have to look things up all the time but I thought I had this one down. Now, you can be sure, I really do have it down (though I expect that I’ll start shaking uncontrollably every time I see . . . that word . . . and from here on out, because of this painful revelation, I’ll probably recast sentences with . . . that word . . . every time I see it- and, it should go without saying, refrain from using it myself. So, what’s the point of this post? For one thing, I want to acknowledge my error. On this site, I both prescribe and describe many rules about English usage and grammar, and I almost invariably stand by my statements when a visitor, in a comment, challenges me (or when I admit that in a given case, perhaps we’re both right). But when I’m wrong, I have to say so. I’m wrong. But there’s more to this issue: Merriam-Webster’s Online points out in a usage note that . . . that word . . . is increasingly used incorrectly (both in the reversal of â€Å"the whole . . . the parts† and in the phrasing â€Å"is . . . of†), but it advises readers against following that trend because â€Å"you may be subject to criticism for doing so.† (Oh, so William Styron can get away with it, but I can’t?) My main point is this: The English language is in flux. It always has been (at least since its inception), and it always will be (at least until its extinction). Just as languages evolve from one species to another Anglo-Saxon becomes Middle English becomes Modern English they are always, within themselves, in turmoil, and we suffer along with them. Merriam-Webster’s print and online dictionaries, in general, have a don’t-sweat-it approach when it comes to iffy usage, but my philosophy has always been to accept the dynamism of language without surrendering to usage that is both ephemeral and erroneous or that may someday be accepted but is still considered substandard in formal writing. Standards in language are like those in law: We have to be able to get along, and just as if each of us does whatever we want to in life, community shall cease, disregarding writing rules as they stand at the time will render us unable to communicate. So, when it comes to all right, I’ll say it comprise, the whole comprises the parts, not the other way around. Comprise is a one-way street. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Comparative Forms of AdjectivesProved vs. Proven10 Humorous, Derisive, or Slang Synonyms for â€Å"Leader† or â€Å"Official†

Definition and Examples of Understatement

Definition and Examples of Understatement Definition Understatement is a  figure of speech in which a writer or speaker deliberately makes a situation seem less important or serious than it is. Contrast with hyperbole. Jeanne Fahnestock points out that understatement (particularly in the form known as litotes) is often used for self-deprecation on the rhetors part, as when the heavily decorated war hero says I have a few medals, or someone who has just won on American Idol observes I did OK (Rhetorical Style, 2011). See Examples and Observations below. Also, see: EmphasisEuphemismIronyLitotesMeiosisTop 20 Figures of Speech Examples A soiled baby, with a neglected nose, cannot be conscientiously regarded as a thing of beauty. (Mark Twain)I have to have this operation. It isnt very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain.(Holden Caulfield in The Catcher In The Rye, by J. D. Salinger)Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it altered her person for the worse.  (Jonathan Swift, A Tale of a Tub, 1704)The graves a fine and private place, But none, I think, do there embrace. (Andrew Marvell, To His Coy Mistress)I am just going outside and may be some time. (Captain Lawrence Oates, Antarctic explorer, before walking out into a blizzard to face certain death, 1912)Vance: My, we are certainly in a good mood this morning.Pee-wee: That, my dear Vance, is the understatement of the year. Everything seems completely different to me today. The air smells so fresh. The sky seems a brand-new shade of blue. I dont think Ive ever noticed the beauty of this leaf. And Vance, have you always been so handsome?  (Wayne White and Paul Reubens in Big Top Pee-wee, 1988) This [double helix] structure has novel features which are of considerable biological interest.(Opening sentence of the Nature article announcing Crick and Watsons discovery of the structure of DNA)Last night, I experienced something new, an extraordinary meal from a singularly unexpected source. To say that both the meal and its maker have challenged my preconceptions about fine cooking is a gross understatement. They have rocked me to my core. (Anton Ego in Ratatouille, 2007)The new EU member states of Poland and Lithuania have been arguing this week for the summit to be called off, and criticizing the German preparations. For historical reasons, the east Europeans are highly sensitive to any sign of Germany cutting deals with Russia over their heads. (The Guardian, May 17, 2007)Well, thats cast rather a gloom over the evening, hasnt it?(Dinner guest, after a visit from the Grim Reaper, in Monty Pythons The Meaning of Life)The adjective cross as a description of his Jove-like wrath that consumed his whole being jarred upon Derek profoundly. It was as though Prometheus, with the vultures tearing his liver, had been asked if he were piqued. (P. G. Wodehouse, Jill the Reckless, 1922) British Understatement The British are feeling the pinch in relation to recent terrorist bombings and threats to destroy nightclubs and airports, and therefore have raised their security level from Miffed to Peeved. Soon, though, security levels may be raised yet again to Irritated or even A Bit Cross. Brits have not been A Bit Cross since the Blitz in 1940 when tea supplies all but ran out.(anonymous post on the Internet, July 2007)Understatement is still in the air. It is not just a specialty of the English sense of humour; it is a way of life. When gales uproot trees and sweep away roofs of houses, you should remark that it is a bit blowy. I have just been listening to a man who got lost in a forest abroad for a week and was scrutinised by hungry wolves, smacking their lips. Was he terrified? - asked the television interviewer, obviously a man of Italian origin. The man replied that on the seventh day when there were no rescuers in sight and the sixth hungry wolf joined the pack, he got a bit worried. Y esterday, a man in charge of a home where 600 old people lived, which was found to be a fire risk where all the inhabitants might burn to death, admitted: I may have a problem. (George Mikes, How to Be a Brit. Penguin, 1986) Observations Understatement is a form of irony: the ironical contrast inheres in the discrepancy between what one would be expected to say and his actual refusal to say it.(Cleanth Brooks, Fundamentals of Good Writing: A Handbook of Modern Rhetoric. Harcourt, 1950)The use of understatement is something that satirists have a mastery of, but as a rhetorical device, we can use it to try to persuade someone by rewording a sentence in less offensive terms. For example, suppose we believe a persons idea to be in error and wish to point this out:I think there may be some additional factors that you may not have accounted for.Your analysis is far too simplistic. No one will take such an idiotic theory seriously. There are many other alternatives we could use, but consider that if we want to convince the person that they are mistaken then we need to pitch our objections accordingly. Perhaps the idea really is idiotic ... but is saying as much likely to incline them to change their opinion? For the second suggestion, it may depend on who we are talking to: a friend, say, may welcome the criticism but a stranger may not appreciate his or her thought being called simplistic, even if it is. Some people might still take offense at the first version, but the determining influences include what we want to achieve and whom we are talking to or writing for. How likely is a person to listen to our critique if they suspect we are talking down to them or dismissing them? (Heinz Duthel, History and Philosophy of Science. Lulu, 2008) Pronunciation: UN-der-STATE-ment Also Known As: litotes, diminutio

How is the music industry being affected by iTunes and similar Research Paper

How is the music industry being affected by iTunes and similar services - Research Paper Example This work "How is the music industry being affected by iTunes and similar services?" outlines how the introduction of iTunes, Amazon MP3, Napster, Zune Marketplace and Rhapsody have changed the music industry business. Instead of buying the whole CD just for one song people nowadays prefer buying their favorite single. Previously people were forced to buy the whole album of a particular artist or band on CD if they liked a particular song however now people have the choice of buying only the song they prefer instead of the whole album. This means that people save on their cost and can buy many more such singles instead of wasting their money on just a single album, whose songs they will hardly listen to except for that one song. Hence services like Amazon and iTunes allow people to choose amongst various songs from a plethora of songs in their database. With services such as iTunes, music has become increasingly accessible for the consumers. It is now very easy to transfer your favor ite song to your handheld device allowing you to listen to your favorite song on the go. Instead of going to the neighborhood’s music shop to buy the album that had your favorite song now you can just sit at home and buy your favorite song online. Artists who worked hard on making their whole album a success are at a disadvantage as others can easily steal their spotlight by introducing their one single hit and then disappearing into anonymity. This has led to a decline in the artists’ creativity.... This means that people save on their cost and can buy many more such singles instead of wasting their money on just a single album, whose songs they will hardly listen to except for that one song. Hence services like Amazon and iTunes allow people to choose amongst various songs from a plethora of songs in their database. With services such as iTunes, music has become increasingly accessible for the consumers. It is now very easy to transfer your favorite song to your handheld device allowing you to listen to your favorite song on the go. Instead of going to the neighborhood’s music shop to buy the album that had your favorite song now you can just sit at home and buy your favorite song online. Artists who worked hard on making their whole album a success are at a disadvantage as others can easily steal their spotlight by introducing their one single hit and then disappearing into anonymity. This has no doubt led to a decline in the artists’ creativity as we no longer s ee albums with all the songs that were a hit. On the other hand however, there has been an increase in the sale of individual songs because they are cheaper than the whole album. In fact by 2010, iTunes had sold 10,000,000,000 songs and the online music store is still going strong with consumers buying thousands of songs from the iTunes store every day. However the increase in sales does not add that much in revenue that it can offset the decline in revenue from the fall in sales of music CDs. In a study conducted by Elberse, she found out that for every one percent rise in the consumers who shift to buying music online there is a six percent drop in the sale of albums. Sales of a ‘mixed bundle’ (the album plus its single) fell from $15000 in 2005 to just $7000 in 2007 (a staggering

English Tort Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 17000 words

English Tort Law - Essay Example The Lister case involves a warden who sexually abused children under his ward whilst he was serving as the supervising head of a boarding house for troubled children in the Wilsic Hall School in Doncaster. His duties included the imposing order in the boarding house, ensuring that children went to school and participated in evening activities, were in bed on time and supervising members of the staff. It was held that the warden’s acts of sexually abusing children were done within the course of his employment because they were closely connected with his official duties. Applying the aforementioned to Gracie’s case, it would seem that the activities by Gracie outside of her actual working hours and during break hours cannot be contemplated as work within the course of her employment at the Call Centre because the employer has no control on what she does during her breaks. Therefore, only Gracie can be made liable for the tort, which in this case is the battery. The tort of trespass of battery has three elements: force; direct application of that force, and; intent to directly apply that force to another. Any touching of another person’s body can amount to the battery if done without the consent of that other party unless the touching was done as a socially acceptable act like the usual jostling that goes on during sales or a hearty slap at the back commonly done by men to congratulate each other (Harpwood 2005 267). Intent does not necessarily refer to intent to harm but intent to apply direct force to another and neither is harm necessary to prove battery.

Delegating for Growth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Delegating for Growth - Essay Example They fear loosing status, hence fail to assign high-profile jobs to their staff, and delegation of work is compromised, as the rookie manager is afraid of being resented by his peers (Walker, 2002, p.4). Secondly, rookie managers tend to depend highly on their bosses; this is usually a sign of disaster, since the new mangers will not learn to do his duties on his own. However, setting up brief meetings with their bosses may be of help to the new managers. In addition, lack of confidence contributes to a manager’s failure to inspire their team. These managers face the challenge of addressing their staff members. Other than addressing the problem faced by their staff, they sit back hoping things will improve, whilst the other staff members become frustrated by their lack of actions. Lack of experience from managers compromises the efforts of addressing a problem that is affecting the organization and the team as well (Walker, 2002, p.7). Therefore, there is need to train the roo kie managers on managerial skills so as to ensure that they understand their new roles, hence delivering effectively. Supporting arguments. Delegation of duties is a function of a manager. Walker (p 4) insists that a rookie manager needs to understand that his new role has nothing to do with personal achievement; instead, it entails building his staff members. However, these rookie managers tend to have insecurities especially when assigning duties to their staff members, as they fear that the employees may outdo them. Therefore, managerial skills are very important, as they enable the new managers to understand their roles; these managers need training and coaching to enable them deliver. The new managers need to be trained on how to delegate tasks effectively, hence enabling them to develop talented staffs that are an advantage to the company. Therefore, the managers will not be insecure about assigning duties effectively without prejudice. Supporting the new managers is necessary . When rookie managers are supported by their bosses, work life becomes easier; however, the kind of support given may be at a disadvantage, for instance, heavy reliance on their bosses could render them reluctant. Walker (p5) insists that managers should only consult their bosses on critical issues, but not on the nitty-gritty ones. Brief meetings between the bosses and the managers are necessary, whereby, the new manager can ask questions and receive feedback on the pressing issues. The new manager is then able to organize his thoughts on how to deal with his staff members. In addition, a manager should be capable of projecting confidence to enable him inspire the team members This is due to the rapid changing technology that requires every manager to be updated and capable of dealing with challenging issues; failure to this leads to stress in the place of work. The ability to deal with arising problems by addressing them other than watching and ignoring the situation is paramount for a manager. Employees gain confidence in a manager who addresses the problems affecting them and certainly puts the matter to rest, thus giving employees the will to perform. Bruch & Ghoshal (p5) add that, managers are not expected to do the inevitable; however, focused managers respond immediately to any arising issue that interferes with the organizational goals. It is however important for the managers to adopt managerial skills before being

Responsibility not a Sufficient Condition of Liability Essay Example for Free

Responsibility not a Sufficient Condition of Liability Essay Introduction Duff = â€Å"responsibility is a necessary but not a sufficient condition of liability† An actor is responsible when they are sufficiently blameworthy in causing the harm or committing the wrong = we blame those who have control over their actions (committing a crime is a mental process) * MR is the guilty mind. Note that it is not necessarily a moral/culpable judgment, and there can be involuntary MR e.g. drugged paedophile in Kingston. * There are many MR states of mind: the sentencing advisory panel stated that there are 4 levels of culpability = intent, recklessness, knowledge, and negligence [in some crimes only negligence is required * Two species of MR Cognitive (involves intention or foresight by D) and Normative (evaluation of D action taking into account surrounding circumstance and D state of mind) * Proof of Cognitive = subjective test (assume state of mind is ascertainable only direct evidence is a confession) – jury ascertain reasonable person but destroy subjectivity * DPP v Smith = D trying to escape from the police in a car was signalled to stop. He did not do so. A PC jumped onto the cars bonnet. D drove at high speed, swerving from side to side, until the officer was thrown off and killed. = CJA S8 – endorses the idea that intention is to be subjectively ascertained Intention Some crimes are only committed intentionally so must distinguish from recklessness e.g. GBH * Direct intent – It was D’s purpose/aim/objective to bring about the AR. Duff = test of failure – would D intend their actions to be a failure * Oblique intent – The AR was a necessary by-product of D committing his offence, although it was not his purpose. * Intent is a subjective concept and must be judged according to what D wanted to happen or foresaw happening (s.8 Criminal Justice Act 1967 = lays down evidential rule as to how intention is to be proved and makes it clear that intention is a subjective state of mind = court or jury must draw inferences from all relevant evidence): * D will intend something if it  was his purpose to bring it about. Similarly, a jury may use as evidence of intention that D foresaw the result of his act as a virtual certainty and it was a virtual certainty. (Woollin, which affirmed the test in Nedrick) * Nedrick = D poured paraffin through C letter box and set light to it. A child died in the fire. The judge directed the jury as follows: If when the accused performed the act of setting fire to the house, he knew that it was highly probable that the act would result in serious bodily injury to somebody inside the house, even though he did not desire it desire to bring that result about he is guilty or murder. â€Å"The jury convicted of murder and the defendant appealed on the grounds of a mis-direction. Held: There was a clear misdirection. The Court of Appeal reviewed the cases of Maloney and Hancock Shankland and formulated a new direction from the two decisions. Lord Lane CJ: the jury should be directed that they are not entitled to infer the necessary intention, unless they feel sure that death or serious bodily harm was a virtual certainty (barring some unforeseen intervention) as a result of the defendants actions and that the defendant appreciated that such was the case. * Woolin D threw his crying child at the cot but missed and he hit his head and died. This was the exact opposite of what D intended. Judge misdirected jury by saying that intention could be inferred from D’s realisation of a ‘substantial risk’. = Where the charge is murder and in the rare cases where the simple direction is not enough, the jury should be directed that they are not entitled to find the necessary intention, unless they feel sure that death or serious bodily harm was a virtual certainty (barring some unforeseen intervention) as a result of the defendants actions and that the defendant appreciated that such was the case. The decision is one for the jury to be reached upon a consideration of all the evidence. * Lord Bridge disagrees with the leniency of the Woollin definition. He uses the example of a man who boards a plane to Manchester – the plane’s arrival in Manchester is a virtual certainty and so it should be seen as conclusive pr oof of intent to go there. Woollin is more generous. * Exceptional cases : oblique intention – D has a purpose other than causing the prohibited harm but where that result is an inevitable or likely consequence – in rare cases it is permissible / central problem is that  there are 2 possible interpretations of Woollin * Definitional interpretation = extended definition of intention – if a consequence is foreseen as virtually certain the jury may be told that this amounts to intention * Evidential interpretation = still no definition of intention where a consequence is foreseen as virtually certain this is evidence entitling a court or jury to find intention – jury has discretion * Evidential adopted = Matthews and Alleyn = Ds who had tossed a half dead V off a bridge who they knew couldn’t swim appealed. Claimed the judge misdirected because he equated the knowledge of virtual certainty to proof of intent, not just evidence. Rix LJ couldn’t see the difference. * Adv. of evidential = gives jury flexibility = jury given moral elbow room (get out clause) * R v Steane = D British radio announcer who was living in Germany during WWII. With his family under threat he was forced to broadcast on the radio for the Nazis. After the war charged with doing acts likely to help the enemy with the intent to assist the enemy. If this case was decided today under evidential the jury would have moral elbow room to find there was no intent * RE A (conjoined twins)= lawful for doctors to separate conjoined twins even though would leave to certain death of the weaker twin LJ Walker = allowed himself moral elbow room as doctors would not intend to kill the weaker twin because that was not the purpose or intention of the surgery * Is intention a psychological state of mind or a moral conclusion = the doctor would not be morally responsible for the death * Does intention have same meaning for all crimes Woollin is the latest case so is the authority but only talking about murder – therefore use Nedrick for all other crimes – but no other authority so use Woollin * The Law Commission support codifying the Woollin test in statute. Proposed definition of intention * Chandler v DPP = D opposed to nuclear weapons so planned non-violent action to immobilise an aircraft – under evidential interpretation the jury would be able to evaluate the motives of D but this may largely depend on political persuasion of the jury so generates uncertainty and inconsistency and would also blur the distinction between the elements of an offence and exculpatory defences Pedain – Intent and the Terrorist Example * The terrorist example is used to show flaws in the definition of intent.  It assumes that a terrorist wants to gain attention by planting a bomb in a public place, but giving enough warning that he thinks the place can be evacuated in enough time. It is, but a member of the bomb disposal squad is killed when trying to disarm the bomb. He may not have foreseen this death, and if he didn’t he isn’t guilty of murder. Many see this as unacceptable. * German law involved D recognising and reconciling with himself the risk that he is exposing people to and liability follows. * The other example is the terrorist who does want the bomb to explode but gets caught and then the bomb disposal person dies. He doesn’t intend to kill the bomb disposal expert. But Pedain says this shouldn’t matter – it is still murder. Can we use a ‘type of harm/transferred malice’ argument. Kaveny – Inferring Intention from Foresight * Two opposing views: one recognises that foresight is conceptually different from intention but that a jury may infer one from the other, and the other that foresight is form of intention. * Neither is acceptable because no degree of foresight can be defined as intention, nor can it be the basis of any reliable finding of intention – so neither view is acceptable. * Thus if we are going to allow foresight to be a basis for a murder charge, it has to be built in as a separate mens rea element instead of using Woollin. Recklessness Regarded as sufficiently blameworthy Until October 2003 there were 2 distinct species of recklessness * 1 = Cunningham recklessness a subjective meaning of recklessness was approved (Recklessness entails a conscious running of an unjustifiable risk) * Stephenson = tramp started fire in a straw stack on a farm – charged under criminal damage act but evidence made by psychiatrist that D suffered from schizophrenia so no subjective foresight [under subjectivity the definition of recklessness lies down a double test 1)whether D foresaw the possibility of consequences /2)whether it was unreasonable to take the risk ] * The law commission in the draft criminal law bill 1993 and the draft offences against the person bill 1998 has endorsed subjectivity * 2= Caldwell / Lawrence recklessness [in 1981 the direction of the HoL changed  due to their verdicts in 2 cases dramatically according to the first part of the test of foreseeability of consequences it was now objective] * Caldwell = D had done some work for the owner of a hotel and as a result of quarrel, got drunk and set fire to the hotel, D argued it did not occur to him that there might be people there whose lives might be endangered. None of the 10 guests were harmed Held: Recklessness in the context of Criminal Damage does not require subjective appreciation of the risk of causing damage, but is also satisfied by a failure to consider an obvious risk. HoL held a person is reckless if 1) he does an act which leads to an obvious risk 2) when does an act which either a) gave no thought to the possibility of the consequences b) did recognise consequences [pretty much a test of negligence] The risk need only be obvious in the sense that it would have been obvious to the reasonable man, not to the accused if he or she had stopped to think Elliott v C nor to a person of the age of the accused or sharing the accused’s characteristics R (Stephen Malcolm) ; R v Miller These cases were confirmed and followed in R v Coles * Lawrence = D drove his motorcycle on a 30mph road at about 80mph, and killed a pedestrian who was crossing the road./Lord Diplock = the defendant was in fact driving the vehicle in such a manner as to create an obvious and serious risk †¦ and, second, that in driving in that manner the defendant did so without having given any thought to the possibility of there being any such risk or, having recognised that there was some risk involved, had none the less gone on to take it. * Lacuna (gap) in the law of recklessness as above test does not take into account if D stops to think whether there is a risk and then concludes there is no risk and consequently acts * Avon v Shimmen = D thought he had ruled out the risk of causing damage to a window when he aimed a martial-art-style kick in its direction, basing his view on his faith in his own skill. [the risk must be obvious but to whom a reasonable person or D if they think about it] * Elliott V C = A fourteen-year-old girl who had learning difficulties set fire to shed – use objective test and learning difficulty irrelevant The court accepted that she could not appreciate the risk of the damage, but such a risk would have been obvious to the ordinary person and Caldwell was applied * Current  test for recklessness: D believes his conduct will result in a risk of harm, and that risk is not a reasonable one to take but he takes it (from Cunningham and reaffirmed in G and Another) * Cunningham – D pulled a gas meter off a wall in order to gain illegal access to a house. It caused a gas leak and V was poisoned. No recklessness because risk was not foreseen. * The test is subjective: there can be no liability where there is no risk foreseen. * G and Another – two boys set fire to some papers underneath a bin, which then spread and caused  £1m worth of property damage. They didn’t foresee the risk and so they could not be liable – no recklessness. * HoL = Caldwell was disproved not overruled and Cunningham approved, so D was acquitted as didn’t know the risk involved / Lord Bingham = 1) for serious crimes you need to prove culpable state of mind = not thinking about risk is not blameworthy just stupid / 2) Caldwell leads to obvious unfairness- neither moral or just to convict based on what someone else would have apprehended /3) about 80% of academics, judges and practitioners criticised Caldwell / 4) most importantly Caldwell misinterpreted s1 criminal damages act * Unanimous decision by HoL adopts the Cunningham view that recklessness involves foresight of the possibility of an unjustified risk ‘ but 3 further points * Lord Steyn = â€Å"if a D closes his mind to a risk he must realise that there is a risk† = Booth v Cps = D ran across the road without looking (deliberately put risk out of his mind but was aware) * Lord Bingham = exempted self-induced intoxication * Lord Bingham = restricts his judgment to the meaning of recklessness in the criminal damage act / Lord Rodger = Caldwell may be better suited to some offences than to others e.g. reckless driving * Note that in crimes where we are only concerned with D’s behaviour we may think of recklessness as an AR element – reckless driving. It is possible to intend to drive reckless * Negligence Unlike intention and recklessness, negligence is a totally objective standard – the risk is not a perceived/foreseen one. 2 degrees of negligence Simple negligence = failing to confirm Gross negligence = major departure of reasonable person – manslaughter Whether negligence is a form of MR is debateable, because the literal translation is that of the ‘guilty mind’. Cognitive = negligence is a state of mind, it is a failure to think so a blank state of mind but like saying nothing is something (how can you have a degree of emptiness) Normative = when finding judgments of blameworthiness , state of mind is part of the picture / D actions in the circumstances are subjected to a broader moral assessment = legitimate that negligence is part of MR – sentencing advisory panel also regard If D has special knowledge (e.g. is a firearms expert) then a higher standard will likely be expected of him. This is given statutory expression in RTA 1998 s.2A(3). On the other hand, less knowledge will not grant D any dispensation (e.g. learner driver must drive at same level as qualified driver). â€Å"knew or ought to have known† imposes that objective standard where special knowledge is included but limited is not. R v C – paranoid schizophrenic appealed a conviction on the basis that the judge should have directed the jury to take his mental illness into account. Not so. Negligence is an objective test and mental illness is irrelevant. Sometimes we are willing to lower the standard of care, for example for children – R (RSPCA) v C (25 year old child who failed to take her cat to a vet). Few serious crimes where negligence can generate liability. Manslaughter, causing or allowing a child to die, public nuisance. Manslaughter requires gross negligence. but change in the past 30 years for statutory offences Road Traffic Act 1998 s.3 is a crime of negligence. Other offences where negligence is an element include Sexual offences act 2003 s.9. = no exemption if believed there was consent , need to reasonably believe not honestly believe Are there degrees of negligence? From a mens rea perspective, there cannot be. But there has to be – falling just short of a standard and well below it. This is demonstrated by contrasting but similar offences in RTA 1998 S.2A and S.3. This may be to do with risk to property v risk to people? Contrast with Adomako, the jury must be required to find a degree of ‘badness’, for manslaughter is a serious crime. Perhaps the degree is less  relevant in simple road traffic cases. Should negligence be a ground of liability? Many believe negligence has no place in criminal liability.  The criminal law is viewed as a reaction to moral fault. Whether there is any sort of moral fault involved in negligent conduct is much debateable (Hall). Punishments for negligence do not deter (negligence is inadvertent) and, also, punishments for negligent homicide tend to be quite light anyway. (Hall). Some disagree – Brett points out that drivers become more careful when there is police presence on the road. Hart supported a more subjectivist approach, taking into account mental and physical capabilities [characteristics and capacity should be taken into account] The law commissioner similarly endorsed in relation to gross negligence for the purpose of negligence Hybrid offences = some countries have due diligence laws, which replace strict liability with negligence. D committed the AR, but if he took all reasonable steps to prevent it, he may avoid liability [burden shifts to D to prove they were not negligent e.g. if found with drugs proving you thought it was something else]. English courts have been disinclined to use this method (although Sweet v Parsley looked favourably upon it). Hall suggests limiting insurance protection for those civilly negligent, more vigorous controls of licenses e.g. driving, and education etc.